Prepared for by the systematization of the Sanskrit language by Pāṇini, the development of the great epics, notably the Rāmāyaṇa, and the refinements of prosody represented by the Pāli lyrics, there arose, in the first centuries AD, a Sanskrit literary style that governed canons of taste for a millennium and remained influential far later through modern Indian languages and their literatures. The style, called kāvya, is characterized by an extremely self-conscious effort on the part of the writer to compose poetry pleasing to both the ear and the mind. It evolved an elaborate poetics of figures of speech, among which the metaphor and simile, in their many manifestations, predominate; a careful use of language, governed by the stated norms of grammar; an ever-increasing tendency to use compound nouns instead of drawing on the quite plentiful possibilities of Sanskrit inflection; a sometimes ostentatious display of erudition in the arts and sciences; an adroitness in the use of varied and complicated, if appropriate, metres—all applied to traditional themes such as the epic had provided and to the rendering of emotions, most often the love between men and women.

The style finds its classical expression in the so-called mahākāvya (“great poem”), most akin to the epyllion (“miniature epic”) art form of the Alexandrian poets (a school of Greek poets, c. 3rd–1st centuries BC); the strophic lyric (a lyric based on a rhythmic system of two or more lines repeated as a unit); and the Sanskrit theatre. It can also be extended to narrative literature, especially the prose novel. The great masters in the Kāvya form (which was also exported to Java) were Aśvaghoṣa, Kālidāsa, Bāṇa, Daṇḍin, Māgha, Bhavabhūti, and Bhāravi.

The earliest surviving kāvya literature was written by a Buddhist, Aśvaghoṣa, said to have been a contemporary of the Kuṣāṇa (Kushān) king Kaniṣka (1st century AD). Aśvaghoṣa’s work also marks a shift away from the Pāli of the Theravāda branch of Buddhism back to the more and more accepted Sanskrit of the Mahāyāna branch. Two works are extant, both in the style of mahākāvya: the Buddhacarita (“Life of the Buddha”) and the Saundarānanda (“Of Sundarī and Nanda”). Compared with later examples, they are fairly simple in style but reveal typical propensities of writers in this genre: a great predilection for descriptions of nature scenes, for grand spectacles, amorous episodes, and aphoristic observations. The resources of the Sanskrit language are fully exploited; stylistic embellishments (alaṅkāra) of simile and metaphor, alliteration, assonance, and the like are employed, often quite felicitously. The original Buddhacarita, rediscovered in 1892, had been known from Tibetan and Chinese translations. The Sanskrit text is fragmentary, breaking off in the 14th canto (major division of the poem) with the enlightenment of the Buddha, while the other versions take the story through the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa. Though intended to instruct the reader to turn away from the sensuous life and follow the Buddha’s path, the work is at its best in descriptions of that very life. This is even more apparent in the Saundarānanda, which recounts a well-known story of how the Buddha converted his half-brother Nanda, who was deeply in love with his wife, Sundarī, and with the good life, to the monastic life of austerity. In his mastery of the intricacies of prosody and the subtleties of grammar and vocabulary, Aśvaghoṣa shows himself the complete forerunner of the Hindu mahākāvya authors.

Sanskrit Poetry.

English and Sanskrit.